Drama in the History Classroom

Some Ideas about Teaching


Using Drama in the History Classroom

I learned this sequence from the excellent Jonathan Neelands many years ago on a CPD course for teaching drama in English lessons. It has mutated slightly as I have used it over the years (any faults you find are all my own), but it works wonderfully for almost any historical narrative (‘story’) to want to do with the pupils, and it works without fail, every time, with pupils of any ability.

Imagining a story (such as that of Kunta Kinte):

1. Either tell the story, or read round appropriately, or (if the story is already known to the pupils) rehearse the sequence of facts by Q&A.

2. The whole class sit in a huge circle.
Explain that you are going to re-tell the story ‘a bit at a time’, each person in the class telling the next ‘bit’.
Establish the ‘rules’.
● Each pupil tells their ‘bit’, then ‘passes the story on’ by tapping the shoulder of the next pupil.
● Nobody is to tell too much – that would leave the people at the end with nothing to say.
● If a person really can say nothing at all, they simple say ‘and’ and tap the next person’s shoulder.
● The class have to promise not all to say nothing – that would leave the last people with all the work.
● If somebody misses something out, it is no big deal – the next person simply begins: ‘before that…’ and so the story carries on.
You begin with: ‘Once upon a time’ and pass on immediately – challenge the class as a whole to so tell the story round the class that the last person finishes the story and all you have to say is: ‘And the all lived (un)happily ever after’.

3. Put the class into groups of three or four (depending on the number of main characters in the story).
Tell them to re-do the same exercise, only going round and round in their group of four.
This time they have to tell the story until you shout ‘next’. Keep shouting out ‘next’ to keep the story turning.
End the exercise as soon as the first group finishes.

4. Pupils stay in their groups of three or four.
● Explain that so far they have been telling the story from the vantage point of an outsider – the ‘narrator’. Explain that now you want them to see the story from the vantage-point of someone inside the story.
● Talk with the pupils about how not every character in the story would know ‘the whole story’ – they would have to conjecture some parts, and might make mistakes; they would see things from their own point of view.
● Allocate a ‘character’ to each person in the group. Give them a few moments to think about what ‘their character’ would know, think and feel. With less able pupils, it is worthwhile letting them at this point get together with pupils from the other small groups who have the same ‘character’ as theirs, then asking them to go back to their group.
● Now Character 1 (Kunta Kinte) tells the story from the point-of-view of that character. After a while, shout the name of the second character (Captain Davies) and that character ‘takes over the story’, from his own point-of-view. ‘Go round’ the characters in the same way as last time, so that everyone gets two or three goes. Less able pupils sometimes find it too hard to secure a meaningful continuous narrative whilst ‘jumping from character to character’ in this way – all I do in those situations is to ask each ‘character’, returning from their ‘same-character’ groups, in turn, to tell the other characters in their mixed group the whole story from their own point of view.

5. Optional extra – works best with more able pupils, but can go well with all pupils who have successfully interacted with the story.
Call the whole class together. Posit a confrontational situation which ‘follows on’ from the basic story – an alarming ‘next step, in which you challenge the class (in their roles) and they have to (in role) contradict/prevent you.
For example, a successful ‘next step’ after the story of Red Riding Hood is that the Prince (play by yourself) turns up to arrest her mother – and the class, as villagers, have to say whether they agree and argue with you whether you ought put Red Riding Hood into care.
One possible ‘next step’ in the story of Kunta Kinte would be to turn up as the ‘Commissioner in Charge of Slaves’. Explain that you have the power to release him from slavery and send him home, but that you’re uncertain whether he deserves it.
Call on the following people (simply call them out from the class – the pupils will be able to adapt to role easily, though you may wish to start with the more outgoing, able pupils):
● Kunta’s parents
● His friends from his home village
● The people who captured him to be a slave
● Captain Davies
● 3rd Mate Slater
● Slaves who were with him on the voyage
● Mr Carrington
● Mr Reynolds
● People who were slaves with ‘Toby’ on the plantation
● Mr Ames
● The men who captured ‘Toby’ when he ran away
● Kunta Kinte himself

Ask each person
● How they knew Kunta Kinte
● What happened between him and them
● What they thought of him
● To express an opinion about whether he ought to be freed.
● But encourage the rest of the class to ‘butt in’ with comments/opinions as long as they are in role.

Of the above:
1 establishes the story,
2 is an exercise reinforcing the sequencing of the events,
3 reinforces the events of the story at individual level
4 requires empathy, but forces the pupils to understand the nuances of the story from different standpoints
5 requires them to use their deep understanding to make points in a hypothetical situation.

Posted on: Mar 11 2008, 10:22 PM



To cite this page, use: CLARE, JOHN D. (2003/2008), 'Using Drama in the History Classroom', at Greenfield History Site (http://www.johndclare.net/Teaching/Drama.htm).


DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE USE OF PRESENTATIONAL DRAMA AS A TOOL FOR TEACHING THE HISTORY/SOCIAL SCIENCE CURRICULUM IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS
D. Diane Speer
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

Context of Study
Overview
A review of literature pertaining to the use of drama as a tool for teaching the history/social science curriculum in public schools reveals that, as a method, drama is being found successful in a variety of settings. There is, however, no single drama format being used. Each writer/educator has developed or put into use his own method of teaching history and social studies through drama. The methods vary greatly. There do, however, seem to be some supporting beliefs and guidelines that appear frequently in the literature. This review identifies the various formats that have been found successful, the supporting beliefs regarding drama as a teaching tool that form several underlying principles, and the guidelines that appear useful in helping reach the goal of teaching the history/social science curriculum. These beliefs and guidelines are critiqued as to how they may be applicable in presenting historical dramas to students as a means of teaching history/social science.
Purpose
My primary purpose in this literature review has been to determine if presenting historical plays to students can be an effective teaching tool for the history/social science curriculum. I have been involved in writing a biographical drama and wanted to find guidelines to heighten its effectiveness in presenting its history and social studies content. In pursuing this information, I sought answers to several questions:
Is drama being used to present history/social science content?
Does historical drama merit attention as a teaching tool in the classroom?
What principles or beliefs underlie the use of drama as an effective teaching tool for covering history/social science curriculum?
What guidelines must be followed to make historical drama an effective teaching tool?
What criteria can be used to judge historical drama as a teaching tool?
Search Procedures
I used four online databases and one print directory as preliminary sources for finding literature. The Handbook of Research on Teacher Education, 2nd edition, edited by John Sikula, was my initial source and referenced a collection of writings by Dorothy Heathcote. Her name was to be referenced often in other articles found. The four online databases included UnCover, ERIC, Educational Abstracts, and the Expanded Academic Index. Each revealed useful articles which, in all, cover a twenty-eight year period, 1970 to 1998.

Initial Search Results
My search for literature on these topics revealed little in the way of critical research. What I found were largely the experiences of proponents, those who personally consider drama a very effective teaching tool. My search also revealed that drama in the classroom takes many different forms. Each proponent has his own method of using the medium and his view (positive) of its effectiveness. Most of the literature dealt specifically with participatory drama, drama in which students actively participate as actors or writers. However, I did find some aspects of their guidelines and underlying beliefs that may be applicable to presenting historical drama to students.
Defining the Terms Used
Definition of "Drama in the Classroom"
Drama in the classroom takes many forms. It certainly includes more than presenting a historical play to a group of students which was my primary focus going into this literature review. The literature shows that drama can take varied forms which depend upon the teacher’s personal drama philosophy and teaching purpose. In fact, using drama to teach history/social science curriculum is sometimes only a byproduct of the teacher’s primary desire to improve reading skills (Bordan, 1970) or provide a cross-curricular learning experience (Smart & Inn, 1994). The drama formats included in the literature under the general heading drama in the classroom include Mantle of the Expert (Heathcote & Bolton, 1995); El Acto, melodrama, Living Newspaper Puppet Theater (Chilcoat, 1995; Chilcoat, 1996; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992); writing original plays (Bordan, 1970; Smart & Inn, 1994); using literature for improvisational drama (Fennessey, 1995); interactional drama (Erickson, 1988; Turner, 1989); story drama (San Jose, 1988); and presentational drama (Cassler, 1990). Some of the drama formats used are, themselves, historical in nature and are recommended for use with particular historical eras and/or ethnic groups (Chilcoat, 1995; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992). Other formats rely solely on the words and phrasing of books (such as historical fiction) for dialogue as is the case of the story drama format (San Jose, 1988).
I found that drama in the classroom generally refers to having students participate directly in the drama, although it does not necessarily include staging a performance before an outside audience. In most cases, the process of developing the play is thought to carry the learning experience. The process, which includes student research, is considered a vehicle for problem solving or a means of improving critical thinking. It helps a child "turn his attention outward and concentrate on the world about him" (Bordan, 1970, pg. 26), makes use of multiple talents, and gives opportunities for success. It can also "stimulate a creative outlet to orchestrate dead facts into real associations and relationships" (Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992, p. 14). However, two sources held that drama presented to audiences can also carry substantial learning content (Cassler, 1990; O'Connor, 1974). All of the literature found supports the notion that drama can make issues in history and social science "come alive".
Prior to conducting this literature review, I would have completely avoided having children participate in dramatizations of historical events in my teaching practice. My own bias going into this study, and limited experience with these formats, had caused me to view these attempts into drama as superficial, not capable of allowing children to reach the depths of understanding required to accurately portray history. I felt that children seemed to focus their energies on knowing their lines rather than knowing their character. However, the literature sheds light on particular ways this can be overcome (Fennessey, 1995; Nelson, 1988). Therefore, even though my primary purpose is to uncover information to improve my development of presentational drama as a means of presenting historical information to students, I will also look at the value of participatory formats, those formats in which the students are involved in researching, developing, and performing the drama. I will look for the principles and guidelines they incorporate that might also be useful in developing the presentational format, where historical information is presented to students through a dramatic performance. I will begin by describing the formats that have been considered successful by their proponents and the rationale behind their use.
Participatory Formats
Creating original drama. This is a method recommended in 1970 by educator, Sylvia Diane Bordan, that had students prompted through her pre-planned questioning to think about various aspects of and perspectives on a particular area of history or social studies content. Their responses, which were noted on the chalkboard, eventually, through evolving class discussion, determined the setting, the particular event, and the dialogue of an original student/teacher written play pertaining to the area of history or social studies being studied. Using the social studies curriculum for content, Bordan’s original purpose in using the method was to provide meaningful reading material for her below standard readers. She considered writing an original play with a class to be a very worthy, creative, and helpful teaching tool which, as of 1970, was underused and, generally, unrecognized. She was surprised to find that her method was effective in teaching the social studies content, as well (Bordan, 1970).
Interactional and improvisational drama. This method had been in use for five years in Glencoe Public Schools, Glencoe, Illinois, when Karen L. Erickson wrote her critique of the method in 1988. In Glencoe Public School’s implementation of interactional drama, the teacher portrays a fictional historical character with whom the students can interact. The character/teacher introduces, in his character role, some aspect of the social studies unit to be studied. The children are encouraged and expected to "play along," immediately creating a new and unplanned (improvised) drama involving the unit of study. The character/teacher listens to student responses as the interaction proceeds and uses the responses to determine a pathway to achieve the goals of the lesson. In the article’s example, the character/teacher, in role as an Irish nobleman, invited the third grade children in the class to visit "his castle in Ireland". This was his way of introducing a unit on the Middle Ages. The student responses paved the way to learning about the Middle Ages through vocabulary, researching particular historical aspects, studying the characteristics of legends and then writing one pertaining to the Middle Ages, map making, and researching castles. Each step in the lesson was new because it was based on the students’ responses during the improvised drama. As of the article’s writing, the method had been used by teachers in the Glencoe Public Schools as a learning medium for several social studies units including Indians, Explorers, Japan, Eskimos, the Chicago Fire, Greece, and Rome as well as units in science and language arts content areas. The medium was described as one through which the teacher’s goals (teaching the social studies curriculum) could be blended with the children’s imaginations and love of play. The students became involved in the learning because the interest level was high (Erickson, 1988).
In 1989, Thomas Turner defined interactional drama as drama that presents a problem-solving context to which students react, moving from audience members to participants in the course of the unfolding drama. In his form of interactional drama, two or more actors (non-students) enter the classroom in the roles of fictional historical characters and present some problem or dilemma through a preplanned scenario. The students, who are initially an audience eavesdropping on the scenario, are soon drawn into the conflict and dialogue by the actors. The students are "provoked to take sides, and urged to help resolve the problem" (Turner, 1989, p. 30). Turner’s method requires that the actors be very well versed in their character’s background and the historical event in order to provide accurate information as the interactional drama unfolds. The teacher’s job (after the dramatic episode is initially introduced) is to have students research to obtain more information pertaining to the historical event, searching for causes, solutions, and related issues. After subsequent interactions with the actors in character take place, the teacher helps the students look back on the dramatic activities to extract meaning from them.
Combining drama and literature to teach history. Two variations of this method used by particular educators were found in the literature. One method uses famous people, those who have fought against the odds to do something special with their lives, such as Langston Hughes, Sojourner Truth, Harriet Tubman, and Martin Luther King, Jr. to motivate the students’ desire to learn about a historical period and social science issues. The example given, focused on having students improvise dramatic scenes based on the words and poetry of Langston Hughes. This activity served as the initial introduction to the period Hughes lived in, to Jim Crow laws, racism, and civil rights. The teacher would invite the students, after they had read samples of Langston Hughes’ writing, to act out the situations his words portrayed. This was done as a means of gaining a fuller understanding of his words. Specifically, the dramatization’s purpose was to help the students "reach below the surface of words to the underlying meaning, to internalize and thus truly understand past as well as present experiences" (Fennessey, 1995, p. 16).
The second method, called story drama, used the exact written dialogue and narration found in literature (minus "he said" and "she said") for the dialogue of its dramatized scenes. The use of historical fiction made this method useful for teaching the history and social science content as well as appreciation of the literature (San Jose, 1988). Again, the teacher’s purpose in dramatizing the dialogue is to bring deeper meaning to the words, to allow the children’s dramatic activity to bring the words "to life"..
Melodrama and El Acto. These are specific styles of drama that can be used effectively to teach particular historical eras and/or social science issues. The development of a drama by students working in a small group gives students the opportunity to apply their historical research (Chilcoat, 1995; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992).
Melodrama, an entertainment form popular in the U.S. in the late 19th and early 20th century, featured exaggerated acting and stereotyped characters (hero/heroine, villain/siren) to portray a situation of conflict. Chilcoat (1992) suggests melodrama as an appropriate form through which students can dramatize themes of the American Progressive Era with issues such as temperance reform, suffrage, urban poverty, and labor reform. It was historically "used to stir emotions and examine social issues" (p.10) such as those listed.
El Acto is a form of theater that was introduced during the 1960's and dealt specifically with issues involving Hispanic farm workers. Historically, its purpose was to bring attention to social issues that needed reform and to educate the audience as to their power and ability to bring about needed change. It later evolved to include a variety of issues facing the Chicano community and is recommended as a dramatic means through which students can study Hispanic/American historical and contemporary themes. Actos use clearly defined characters, identified by signs hung around their necks, and little or no scenery (Chilcoat, 1995).
The Living Newspaper. This format, introduced as a theater form in the 1930's, rose in response to the widespread financial hardships and social problems that marked the Depression era. Its purpose was to arouse the public conscience and promote positive action that could result in social reform. Often the plays portrayed a current event. Using puppets was a novelty the Living Newspaper play used to catch attention in the ‘30s. It is the student creation of this puppet format that is suggested for use in portraying historical and contemporary social issues (Chilcoat, 1996).
Mantle of the Expert. This is a format of participatory theater developed by Dorothy Heathcote. The literature found often referred to and lauded Heathcote’s methods even though her approach is actually quite distinct from any of the aforementioned formats. The mantle of the expert never directly asks children to portray historical characters. Heathcote views that type of portrayal extremely difficult for children, resulting only in a superficial treatment (Heathcote & Bolton, 1995). Instead, the mantle of the expert approach allows the children to view historical or social science content through a contrived lense. This lense is generally a make-believe "business enterprise" of which the children are "employees". The enterprise, its product or service, and the corresponding jobs are determined by the teacher in advance and are specifically chosen for the opportunities they provide for logical tie-ins to the type of social studies content that the teacher wishes the students to study. Within the context of their jobs at the enterprise, the children carry out tasks that eventually call upon them to research the social studies content. However, their study is not as students in a classroom. Instead, they are experts representing the interests of their enterprise. This is the mantle of the expert they wear, allowing them to study the social science content with confidence, with the authority of their developed "expertise" as company employees. The method allows the history/social science content to be seen as relevant to the needs of the fabricated enterprise. The student’s research is viewed, therefore, as important and having a purpose. The mantle of the expert requires gradual development over a series of lessons. Ideally, Heathcote sees the method as one a teacher would develop over an entire school year (Heathcote & Bolton, 1995).
Presentational Formats
Presentational Drama. This is a format in which historical or social science content is presented to an audience through a play or film. In an educational setting, the students are the audience. It is included in this literature review through an article on the presentation of a play on Magna Carta (Cassler, 1990) and a book on the use of film in the history classroom (O'Connor, 1974). It appears to hold promise as a means of bringing re-enacted historical events to the classroom in a format that makes the historical information accessible to a wide variety of students.
Principles and Guidelines for Effective Use of Drama Identified
Underlying Principles
Several underlying beliefs constitute the principles or reasons for using drama in teaching the history/social science curriculum. They include:
Drama is effective in arousing emotions and sentiments.
Drama allows the audience to experience history vicariously through the enacted lives of historical figures.
History is about human experience and historical characters must be seen as people who really lived.
Drama is a means of provoking investigation into historical periods and events.
The historical dramatist must be respectful of the characters and the facts. He must trust the audience to draws its own conclusion.
Accuracy and objectivity are paramount. The use of original documents and sources for historical research is encouraged.
Drama can shed light on the conflicts that comprise history.

Evidence of underlying principles
Drama is effective in arousing emotions and sentiments. Historically, drama in various forms has been used to arouse public sentiment on social issues (Chilcoat, 1995; Chilcoat, 1996; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992). It is that same ability to arouse and involve audiences and participants that is being called upon in the classroom. "Real learning occurs when students are passionate about an issue" (Fennessey, 1995, 19). The key to having children become experts on subjects is involvement (Erickson, 1988; Heathcote & Bolton, 1995). The primary purpose of The Living Newspaper was "to focus attention on a significant, topical problem affecting the public and stimulate the public’s awareness of those issues that required immediate action" (Chilcoat, 1996, p. 254).
Drama allows the audience to experience history vicariously through the enacted lives of historical figures. Participating in drama gives children the opportunity to view an event from the inside, to pretend to have been a part. Drama helps students to reach a deeper meaning of the words, making them a part of their own experience. Their closer identification with the event serves as inspiration to address the issues that were brought to light during the drama experience (Fennessey, 1995).
History is about human experience and historical characters must be seen as people who really lived. Depicting characters as "full-blooded humans" involved in particular conflicts and retaining the human element, keeping the scale of the play on the level of the individual participant, helps to involve those students who feel history has little to do with them. Generally, "audiences, especially in the theater, can concentrate on individual stories better than on sweeping stories" (Cassler, 1990, p. 261). Focusing on an individual may assist a student in identifying with the historical person, seeing an event through the eyes of that figure. "Knowing that history is about the human experience makes the choice of focusing on an individual event more appropriate" (Fennessey, 1995, p. 16).
Drama is a means of provoking investigation into historical periods and events. A play cannot always be exactly factual. Fitting a historical event into two hours requires shaping in order to have characters meet and confront each other within the available stage time. Also, even though, in reality events may have gone unresolved for extremely long periods of time, events are often shown completely resolved in a play. Therefore, historical drama is often most useful as a means of sparking interest in a historical period, rather than the exact explanation of what happened (Cassler, 1990). Chilcoat asserts that using drama as a teaching tool gives students practice in applying historical research, posing questions, locating and gathering data, subjecting the gathered information to analysis, synthesizing the information, verifying the validity of the conclusions, and expressing them in an articulate manner. The teacher acts as a facilitator during the process providing, through the drama format, a framework in which students can explore and develop their own conclusions (Chilcoat, 1996).
The historical dramatist must be respectful of the characters and the facts. He must trust the audience to draws its own conclusion. Actors must be extremely well versed in the historical background of the portrayed events to avoid inaccuracy in the presented material (Turner, 1989). Likewise, playwrights must avoid showing only one side and creating propaganda plays (Cassler, 1990). Cassler also warns against imposing current morality on earlier times. This, he holds, is manipulative and often evidence of an unmerited sense of superiority over an earlier period.
Accuracy and objectivity are paramount. The use of original documents and sources for historical research is encouraged. Accuracy and objectivity are paramount when using drama to teach history. Despite the fact that The Living Newspaper was ultimately featured in accusations of un-American activity for its political controversy, as a classroom method, it is content free and emphasizes the students’ use of original documents and sources to find accurate historical information. Authenticity is a vital factor in presenting history (Chilcoat, 1996). The use of first hand or original documents and resources such as diaries, letters, poems, songs, eyewitnesses, and newspaper accounts, is advocated (Chilcoat, 1995; Chilcoat, 1996; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992; Fennessey, 1995; Nelson, 1988). However, because each of these resources reflects a particular perspective, a variety of resources on different sides of the issue should be included (Chilcoat, 1996).
Drama can shed light on the conflicts that comprise history. Traditional elements of drama apply even with the most important historical episodes. "The first rule of play writing is that you must tell a good story." It must have "vivid characters involved in a tangled situation where the audience is asking--how is it going to end?" (Cassler, 1990, p. 256). With short dramas such as El Acto or The Living Newspaper, plots "must be provocative, so it causes immediate and spontaneous group discussion among the members of the class audience" (Chilcoat, 1996, p. 256). At the same time, the story line should be easy to follow, simple, real, concrete, and definite. The conflict must be quickly recognized (Chilcoat, 1996).
Guidelines
There is no direct crossover between procedures used in a participatory format and those used in a presentational format. However, there are guidelines used in each that are meant to accomplish particular teaching purposes. Some of these guidelines, then, are applicable to both formats. The guidelines identified here are ones that seem useful in making presentational drama effective as a teaching tool:
Present the drama when it fits into the unit being studied.
2. Provide the audience with what they need to know before they see the drama.
Include a debriefing session after the drama.
Present the drama when it fits into the unit being studied. One of the most basic, yet overlooked, guidelines is to always fit the drama into the proper place in the curriculum. Just as one would not have students read a chapter on the California gold rush while studying ancient Egypt, it does no good to present a dramatic piece on a particular period in history when that period is not the current unit of study. A presentational drama should not be used as an extracurricular assembly (O'Connor, 1974). Instead, make sure that a play is presented when the children are ready for the information the drama presents. Even within the days or weeks allotted to a particular history/social science unit, care must be taken to assure that students have gained sufficient knowledge to understand the play and connect it to their unit of study. Cassler (1990) holds that a play should "take the average intelligent person who knows practically nothing about the historical period from Fact A to Fact B to Fact Z" (p. 259). The play writer and teacher must, therefore, know just what "Fact A and Fact B" are and make sure the students have this information before seeing the production.
Provide the audience with what they need to know before they see the drama. In participatory drama, procedures must be clearly defined. Students should know the purpose of the activity, have an overview of the activity including how their work is to proceed, and have a clear understanding of the time frame and end product (Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992). Likewise, the purpose of presentational drama should be clearly understood. It should be made clear to the students that the purpose of watching the drama is to obtain information such as a sense of the issues facing individuals during the particular time period being studied or a deeper understanding of the characters’ beliefs and rationales, and their respective roles within the historical conflict. Chilcoat advocates having handouts for the students to fill out while watching a dramatic presentation. The questions included in the handout should be structured to promote student learning and understanding about the historical issues being portrayed (Chilcoat, 1995; Chilcoat, 1996; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992).
Two proponents of using drama in the history/social science curriculum recommend providing a written program for the audience which gives them necessary background information from which to understand the play presented (Cassler, 1990; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992). The level of the students must always be taken into account and the information presented accordingly. The play writer and the teacher, therefore, must identify and provide what the students need to know before the start of the play. Whether this information is taken care of in a written program or through class discussion before seeing the play, the students must be given sufficient knowledge in advance.
In Chilcoat’s guidelines for student-developed productions, programs are required that give the play’s title, a brief description of each scene, a historical time line of the topic, a list of important historical persons involved with the event, and a bibliography of resources. The purpose is not only to provide the class audience with the necessary historical background but also to reinforce the historical information presented (Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992). Such a format could be used in programs for presentational drama as well.
Questioning is another method of preparing students. It has been advocated that questioning be open ended to create an environment that encourages shyer, less articulate children to contribute ideas. Questioning can also be used to help the children arrive at their own conclusions (Bordan, 1970).
Include a debriefing session after the drama. A critical element of using drama as a teaching tool is debriefing. Chilcoat (1996) states that discussion and debriefing are the elements that allow drama to be useful as a learning process. They reveal the learning that has taken place including the content knowledge as it fits in historically and to present day situations. He includes as a possible feature of this process, handouts filled out by students while watching the dramatic presentation (Chilcoat, 1995; Chilcoat, 1996; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992).
While the play, itself, will provide substantial content information, a follow-up question-and-answer period with the actors out of their roles can address questions that arise. Including a question and answer session at the end helps to clarify points made in the play, giving additional historical information based directly on the piqued interest of students. It can also serve to reconcile any "conflicts between historical accuracy and the requirements of drama" (Cassler, 1990, p. 260). Bordan (1970) stresses in her book that research should always be a rich experience. When children are exposed to a rich source of information, they should have the opportunity to immediately note their impressions. Such an opportunity could follow a dramatic presentation and could take the initial form of simply recounting the specific scenes witnessed (O'Connor, 1974). This can make good use of the few minutes the actors need to get out of costume. When the actors are available, the question and answer period can commence.
Discussion
Drama in the history/social science classroom can take several forms. It has the potential to entertain and educate at the same time. Cassler (1990) feels that the mere fact that historical conflicts actually occurred can make the events more stimulating than mere fiction. Several proponents agree that dramatization can make history come alive or be viewed from "within" (Cassler, 1990) (Fennessey, 1995; Nelson, 1988; Turner, 1989). Still others feel that dramatization leads students to more meaningful discussions because emotions and controversy have been stirred (Turner, 1989; Wilhelm, 1998). Some see drama in a participatory format as a means of giving a "real" purpose to learning. They highlight its potential to make learning cross-curricular (Bordan, 1970) (Martin, 1998) (Smart & Inn, 1994)
Student-created plays allow the students to thoroughly research content while developing their play. The effort they put into script writing, rehearsals, and performances requires ongoing discussion and analysis of their information until they reach an understanding of the underlying impact of the event on its participants (Chilcoat, 1996). Generally, the process, not the product, is the learning medium (Bordan, 1970; Heathcote & Bolton, 1995). Whether or not such a play is great art is in the eye of the advocate. In the case of presentational drama, however, where the historical material is presented to students through drama, the need to be artistically engaging is vital (Cassler, 1990).
A play presented to a school audience needs to cause the students to buy into the characters and situation upon the rise of the curtain. It is my own experience in watching dramatic presentations that a lack of artistic quality serves as a distraction, reducing the viewer’s ability to become involved with the issue or event being portrayed. This artistic quality is not, however, tied to elaborate lighting, sets, props, or costumes. It is possible to stage effective productions anywhere an audience might be. The original actos were staged wherever their audience was gathered, even performing on truck beds to workers in farm fields (Chilcoat, 1995).
Pitfalls
Drama in the classroom can fall into many traps. Historical plays have limits according to Cassler (1990) and may not be the best educational choice. They can be stereotypical, boring, preachy, non-understandable, or irrelevant. Even the most important historical events can be boring or without dramatic interest. They can be "a stirring conflict that goes nowhere", resulting in a "stalemate play" (p. 257). The audience may know too little about the historical period to understand the play or may feel manipulated (by a propaganda play) and resist the information. These pitfalls must be avoided.
Benefits
Presentational drama makes historical drama accessible to a wide variety of abilities (Cassler, 1990). It can arouse emotions and encourage discussion. The cross-curricular nature of participatory drama allows a range of benefits, from developing critical thinking to building self-esteem. The literature mentions specifically the development of critical thinking (Bordan, 1970; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992; Fennessey, 1995) and opportunities for using problem solving skills (Bordan, 1970) (Chilcoat, 1996). Providing a purpose for learning, participatory drama motivates research and allows practice in research skills (Bordan, 1970; Chilcoat, 1995; Chilcoat, 1996; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992). At the same time, it gives students a creative outlet, allowing ample room for imagination and active participation when considering how best to present the researched material (Bordan, 1970; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992; Fennessey, 1995). It can, but does not need to include an outside audience. Many dramatizations may remain within the walls of the classroom. However, if there is a desire for an audience and the audience is well chosen, it can bring enormous fulfillment to the students (Bordan, 1970).
Conclusion
The arguments put forth in the literature led me to agree that drama does have a place as a teaching tool in the history/social science curriculum. The literature shows that drama is already being used successfully to present history/social science content. I did not begin this review of literature with a favorable opinion of having the children write or participate in dramatizations. I was concerned with them being too self-conscious to truly empathize with the character or situation they were portraying. The literature, however, has provided practical suggestions for eliminating this problem: 1) a teacher can create an open classroom environment where trust and rapport exist (Bordan, 1970); and 2) the drama can be approached gradually. It need not start out with a teacher’s announcement of "We’re going to do a play". It can, instead, start out as simply as play (Erickson, 1988).
The literature indicates that children can be absorbed into dramatized situations if it is at their level of comprehension, that is, if they have the necessary background knowledge to understand the issue being portrayed. This necessary knowledge can and must be provided in some manner if the children are to be exposed to a particular dramatic piece or dramatic material (Cassler, 1990). Without the proper background information, the dramatic piece is meaningless. Likewise, the drama cannot be left to stand alone if maximum effectiveness as a teaching tool is desired. If the play is presented while it ties into the current unit of study and if its content is further explored through a debriefing session such as a question and answer period, presentational drama can be an effective teaching tool.
Ramifications for Teaching History/Social Science Curriculum
History/social science curriculum offers a logical content for dramatization. In participatory drama, the play provides the incentive for the research (Bordan, 1970) (Chilcoat, 1995; Chilcoat, 1996; Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992). Some of the dramatic formats (El Acto and melodrama) even have historical significance, lending themselves to a meaningful avenue of expression for the study of the corresponding historical period. For instance, Chilcoat lists 57 possible Progressive Era themes that could be considered for study and dramatic portrayal through melodrama (Chilcoat & Ligon, 1992). The list, he points out, is not exhaustive.
The Living Newspaper, though a historical item worthy of study in itself, is suggested for use by way of its original purpose: to promote empowerment of the general public. It is not suggested to present material historically tied to the form, but rather, to present current events or current issues of controversy in a manner aimed at bringing audiences to action. It is meant to engage its audience, to heighten individual and collective consciousness, to encourage a positive, active citizenship (Chilcoat, 1996).
In June of 1988, the National Archives chose drama as the means through which to let the public know it had acquired, by loan, a 1297 copy of the Magna Carta. The resulting play, "Second in the Realm" turned out to be a very effective means of reaching the general public, the drama making the history of Magna Carta accessible to a wide audience. Other historical plays have also proven effective transmitters of historical information such as "1776", and "A Man for All Seasons" (Cassler, 1990). If the guidelines identified in this review are followed, this could hold true for younger audiences, as well. The historical content and drama must be geared to the age level of the prospective audience.
Next Research Step
This review of literature pertaining to drama in the classroom has given me a new view of participatory drama, revealing the many different forms it can take. I can see how it can be an effective, cross-curricular, teaching tool using the history/social science curriculum as content and I will continue to research the literature. However, I will postpone attempting participatory drama until a time when I am teaching in my own classroom.
My next step in researching the topic is to attempt an effective use of presentational drama in a classroom. This is following through on my current efforts to write historical drama for presentation to public school students. The principles and guidelines identified as a result of this literature review will serve to improve my implementation of the drama and maximize its effectiveness as a tool for teaching the history/social science curriculum.
References
Bordan, S. D. (1970). Plays as Teaching Tools in the Elementary School. West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company, Inc.
Cassler, R. (1990). Creating historical drama. History Teacher, 23(3), 255-262.
Chilcoat, G. W. (1995). "El Acto": Studying the Hispanic American experience through the Farm Worker Theater. The Social Studies, 86(4), 162-166.
Chilcoat, G. W. (1996). Living newspaper puppet theater: An inquiry process for exploring historical social issues in high school social studies. The Social Studies, 87(6), 254-261.
Chilcoat, G. W., & Ligon, J. (1992). Studying the progressive era through melodrama as the method. Georgia Social Science Journal, 23(1), 10-17.
Erickson, K. L. (1988). Building castles in the classroom. Language Arts, 65(1), 14-19.
Fennessey, S. (1995). Living history through drama and literature. Reading Teacher, 49(1), 16-19.
Heathcote, D., & Bolton, G. (1995). Drama for Learning: Dorothy Heathcote's Mantle of the Expert Approach to Education. (First ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Martin, A. M. (1998). Why theater should be integrated into the curriculum. National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 82(597), 30-33.
Nelson, P. A. (1988). Drama: Doorway to the past. Language Arts, 65, 20-25.
O'Connor, J. E. (1974). Teaching History with Film. In American Historical Association (Ed.), Discussions on Teaching (First ed., pp. 1-50). Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, Inc.
San Jose, C. (1988). Story Drama in the Content Areas. Language Arts, 65(1), 26-33.
Smart, J., & Inn, K. (1994). Learning comes together: The creation of a play. Kamehameha Journal of Education, 5, 33-46.
Turner, T. N. (1989). Interactional drama: Where the long ago and far away meet the here and now. The Social Studies, 80(1), 30-33.
Wilhelm, J. D. (1998). Learning by being: Drama as total immersion. Voices from the Middle, 6(2), 3-10.


Reader's TheaterBy Elaine
Here's the way I've done reader's theater. I have several books with biographical, historical, etc. scripts. I assign roles, and allow students to get together to rehearse reading their parts. They read their part and
follow along while others read their parts many times as they prepare for their "performance." We set up scenes using desks, chairs, a few student made props, but for the most part just perform/read the play for the rest of the class. I usually have 2 plays that are related (one about Martin Luther King, Jr. and a second about Rosa Parks). After the plays there are usually some suggested
follow-up activities that could be used as assessments related to communication arts while students are learning social studies.
It just seems like a win-win situation. The kids love the plays, and are reading and rereading which reinforces a major goal for reading instruction -- fluency. The teacher gets to hear the students read without doing the round-robin thing. The students learn about history . . . etc., etc., etc.
Have fun,Elaine


Social Studies is the story of man. It is the drama through which we have all lived. It is the story of our fathers and their fathers. That's what I love about it! It's one of the reasons I teach--to share these stories. I also teach Drama as a course, which is a great way to make stories fun for my students.
I have taught Special Ed and regular education at both public and private schools. I have taught all levels in junior high and elementary schools. My first love was Social Studies, and here at Arlington I get to do that all the time! Plus, I get to teach Drama (my second love). I earned both my Bachelor's and my Master's degrees from LSU, as well as extra hours (+46).